Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Letter
  • Published:

Atmospheric emission of nanoplastics from sewer pipe repairs

Nature Nanotechnology volume 17, pages 1171–1177 (2022)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

Nanoplastic particles are inadequately characterized environmental pollutants that have adverse effects on aquatic and atmospheric systems, causing detrimental effects to human health through inhalation, ingestion and skin penetration1,2,3. At present, it is explicitly assumed that environmental nanoplastics (EnvNPs) are weathering fragments of microplastic or larger plastic debris that have been discharged into terrestrial and aquatic environments, while atmospheric EnvNPs are attributed solely to aerosolization by wind and other mechanical forces. However, the sources and emissions of unintended EnvNPs are poorly understood and are therefore largely unaccounted for in various risk assessments4. Here we show that large quantities of EnvNPs may be directly emitted into the atmosphere as steam-laden waste components discharged from a technology commonly used to repair sewer pipes in urban areas. A comprehensive chemical analysis of the discharged waste condensate has revealed the abundant presence of insoluble colloids, which after drying form solid organic particles with a composition and viscosity consistent with EnvNPs. We suggest that airborne emissions of EnvNPs from these globally used sewer repair practices may be prevalent in highly populated urban areas5, and may have important implications for air quality and toxicological levels that need to be mitigated.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: A schematic illustration of CIPP installation.
Fig. 2: Particle mass size distributions of wet colloids and dry particles from CIPP waste.
Fig. 3: Size, morphology and viscosity characteristics of dry particles aerosolized from four samples of CIPP waste condensate.
Fig. 4: SERS spectra of individual dry EnvNP particles from the X1 sample of CIPP waste condensate.
Fig. 5: Carbon chemical bonding and mixing states of the EnvNPs from CIPP waste condensates.

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

The datasets generated and analysed in this work are available for download as a zip file from https://doi.org/10.4231/XR71-ZM27. Datasets are provided for Figs. 2–5 and Supplementary Figs. 3, 5 and 7–10. Supplementary information is available in the online version of the paper. Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to A.L.

References

  1. Schirinzi, G. F. et al. Cytotoxic effects of commonly used nanomaterials and microplastics on cerebral and epithelial human cells. Environ. Res. 159, 579–587 (2017).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Prata, J. C., da Costa, J. P., Lopes, I., Duarte, A. C. & Rocha-Santos, T. Environmental exposure to microplastics: an overview on possible human health effects. Sci. Total Environ. 702, 134455 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Lehner, R., Weder, C., Petri-Fink, A. & Rothen-Rutishauser, B. Emergence of nanoplastic in the environment and possible impact on human health. Environ. Sci. Technol. 53, 1748–1765 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Gigault, J. et al. Nanoplastics are neither microplastics nor engineered nanoparticles. Nat. Nanotechnol. 16, 501–507 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Cured-In-Place Pipe (CIPP) Market Size, Share, Trend, Forecast, and Competitive Analysis: 2020–2025. Report No. SRCE108; 1–273 (Stratview Research, 2019).

  6. Peng, J., Wang, J. & Cai, L. Current understanding of microplastics in the environment: occurrence, fate, risks, and what we should do. Integr. Environ. Assess. Manag. 13, 476–482 (2017).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Bucci, K., Tulio, M. & Rochman, C. M. What is known and unknown about the effects of plastic pollution: a meta‐analysis and systematic review. Ecol. Appl. https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.2044 (2020).

  8. Akdogan, Z. & Guven, B. Microplastics in the environment: a critical review of current understanding and identification of future research needs. Environ. Pollut. 254, 113011 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Wu, P. et al. Environmental occurrences, fate, and impacts of microplastics. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 184, 109612 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Wlasits, P. J., Stoellner, A., Lattner, G., Maggauer, K. & Winkler, P. M. Size characterization and detection of aerosolized nanoplastics originating from evaporated thermoplastics. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 56, 176–185 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Chen, G., Feng, Q. & Wang, J. Mini-review of microplastics in the atmosphere and their risks to humans. Sci. Total Environ. 703, 135504 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Ra, K. et al. Considerations for emission monitoring and liner analysis of thermally manufactured sewer cured-in-place-pipes (CIPP). J. Hazard. Mater. 371, 540–549 (2019).

  13. Noh, Y. et al. Emergency responder and public health considerations for plastic sewer lining chemical waste exposures in indoor environments. J. Hazard. Mater. 422, 126832 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Matthews, E., Matthews, J. & Eklund, S. NASSCO CIPP Emissions Phase 2: Evaluation of Air Emissions from Polyester Resin CIPP with Steam Cure. Final Report (NASSCO, 2020).

  15. Hong, Z. et al. Characteristics of atmospheric volatile organic compounds (VOCs) at a mountainous forest site and two urban sites in the southeast of China. Sci. Total Environ. 657, 1491–1500 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Teimouri Sendesi, S. M. et al. An emerging mobile air pollution source: outdoor plastic liner manufacturing sites discharge VOCs into urban and rural areas. Environ. Sci. Process. Impacts 22, 1828–1841 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Teimouri Sendesi, S. M. et al. Worksite chemical air emissions and worker exposure during sanitary sewer and stormwater pipe rehabilitation using cured-in-place-pipe (CIPP). Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 4, 325–333 (2017).

  18. Hinds, W. C. in Aerosol Technology: Properties, Behavior, and Measurement of Airborne Particles 46–48 (Wiley, 1999).

  19. Initial list of hazardous air pollutants with modifications (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2022). https://www.epa.gov/haps/initial-list-hazardous-air-pollutants-modifications

  20. NSCEP. An Exposure and Risk Assessment for Benzo[a]pyrene and Other Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. Report No. EPA-44074-85-020 (NSCEP, 1982).

  21. Foster, P. M., Mylchreest, E., Gaido, K. W. & Sar, M. Effects of phthalate esters on the developing reproductive tract of male rats. Hum. Reprod. Update 7, 231–235 (2001).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Lee, A. K. Y. et al. Formation of light absorbing organo-nitrogen species from evaporation of droplets containing glyoxal and ammonium sulfate. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47, 12819–12826 (2013).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Ortiz-Montalvo, D. L., Schwier, A. N., Lim, Y. B., McNeill, V. F. & Turpin, B. J. Volatility of methylglyoxal cloud SOA formed through OH radical oxidation and droplet evaporation. Atmos. Environ. 130, 145–152 (2016).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Bain, R. M., Pulliam, C. J., Thery, F. & Cooks, R. G. Accelerated chemical reactions and organic synthesis in Leidenfrost droplets. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 55, 10478–10482 (2016).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Petters, S. S. et al. Volatility change during droplet evaporation of pyruvic acid. ACS Earth Space Chem. 4, 741–749 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Nguyen, T. B. et al. Formation of nitrogen-and sulfur-containing light-absorbing compounds accelerated by evaporation of water from secondary organic aerosols. J. Geophys. Res.: Atmos. 117, D01207 (2012).

    Google Scholar 

  27. Marsh, B. M., Iyer, K. & Cooks, R. G. Reaction acceleration in electrospray droplets: size, distance, and surfactant effects. J. Am. Soc. Mass. Spectrom. 30, 2022–2030 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Laskin, J. et al. Molecular selectivity of brown carbon chromophores. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48, 12047–12055 (2014).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Reid, J. P. et al. The viscosity of atmospherically relevant organic particles. Nat. Commun. 9, 956 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Zhou, X.-X., Liu, R., Hao, L.-T. & Liu, J.-F. Identification of polystyrene nanoplastics using surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy. Talanta 221, 121552 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Schoukens, G., Martins, J. & Samyn, P. Insights in the molecular structure of low- and high-molecular weight poly(styrene-maleic anhydride) from vibrational and resonance spectroscopy. Polymer 54, 349–362 (2013).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Dhez, O., Ade, H. & Urquhart, S. G. Calibrated NEXAFS spectra of some common polymers. J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom. 128, 85–96 (2003).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Laskin, A., Moffet, R. C. & Gilles, M. K. Chemical imaging of atmospheric particles. Acc. Chem. Res. 52, 3419–3431 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Najafi, M. et al. Evaluation of Potential Release of Organic Chemicals in the Steam Exhaust and Other Release Points During Pipe Rehabilitation Using the Trenchless Cured-In-Place Pipe (CIPP) Method (NASSCO, 2018).

  35. Nuruddin, M. et al. Evaluation of the physical, chemical, mechanical, and thermal properties of steam-cured PET/polyester cured-in-place pipe. J. Compos. Mater. 53, 2687–2699 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Ra, K. et al. Critical review: surface water and stormwater quality impacts of cured-in-place pipe repairs. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 110, 15–32 (2018).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Li, X. et al. Outdoor manufacture of UV-cured plastic linings for storm water culvert repair: chemical emissions and residual. Environ. Pollut. 245, 1031–1040 (2019).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. US Occupational Safety and Health Administration Citation and Notification of Penalty, Inspection Number 1274028. Report No. 0524200 (US Department of Labor, 2017).

  39. LeBouf, R. F. & Burns, D. A. Health Hazard Evaluation Report: Evaluation of Exposures to Styrene During Ultraviolet Cured-in-Place-Pipe Installation. Report No. 2018-0009–3334 (US National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2019).

  40. Cure-in-Place Pipe (CIPP): Additional Considerations for Municipalities (California Department of Public Health, 2017).

  41. CIPP Safety Alert (California Department of Public Health, 2018).

  42. Lin, P., Fleming, L. T., Nizkorodov, S. A., Laskin, J. & Laskin, A. Comprehensive molecular characterization of atmospheric brown carbon by high resolution mass spectrometry with electrospray and atmospheric pressure photoionization. Anal. Chem. 90, 12493–12502 (2018).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Laskin, A., Cowin, J. P. & Iedema, M. J. Analysis of individual environmental particles using modern methods of electron microscopy and X-ray microanalysis. J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenom. 150, 260–274 (2006).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Anger, P. M. et al. Raman microspectroscopy as a tool for microplastic particle analysis. Trends Anal. Chem. 109, 214–226 (2018).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Moffet, R. C., Tivanski, A. V. & Gilles, M. K. in Fundamentals and Applications in Aerosol Spectroscopy (eds Signorell, R. & Reid, J. P.) Ch. 17 (Taylor and Francis, 2010).

  46. Moffet, R. C., Henn, T., Laskin, A. & Gilles, M. K. Automated chemical analysis of internally mixed aerosol particles using X-ray spectromicroscopy at the carbon K-edge. Anal. Chem. 82, 7906–7914 (2010).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the US National Science Foundation (grant nos. CBET-1624183 and CBET-2129166 (A.J.W. group), and CBET-2107946 (A.L. group)), the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program (grant no. DGE-1333468 (A.C.M.)) and the Purdue University Ross Fellowship program (B.N.P., S.A.L.S. and Y.N.). Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. The CCSEM–EDX, HRTEM and SERS analyses, with guidance from N. Lata and Z. Cheng, were performed at the Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, a National Scientific User Facility sponsored by OBER at PNNL. PNNL is operated by the US Department of Energy by the Battelle Memorial Institute under contract DE-AC06-76RL0. STXM–NEXAFS analyses were performed at beamline 5.3.2 of the Advanced Light Source at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), with guidance from D. Kilcoyne, M. Marcus and D. Shapiro. LBNL is supported by the Director, Office of Science, Office of Basic Energy Sciences of the US Department of Energy under contract DE-AC02-05CH11231. STXM maps of particles were also acquired at the Canadian Light Source (CLS), with guidance from J. Wang. CLS is supported by the Canada Foundation for Innovation, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the University of Saskatchewan, the Government of Saskatchewan, Western Economic Diversification Canada, the National Research Council Canada and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

    Ana C. Morales, Jay M. Tomlin, Christopher P. West, Felipe A. Rivera-Adorno, Brianna N. Peterson, Steven A. L. Sharpe & Alexander Laskin

  2. Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

    Yoorae Noh, Seyedeh M. T. Sendesi, Brandon E. Boor & Andrew J. Whelton

  3. School of Materials Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

    John A. Howarter

  4. Sonoma Technology, Petaluma, CA, USA

    Ryan C. Moffet

  5. Physical Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA

    Swarup China & Patrick Z. El-Khoury

  6. Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA

    Brian T. O’Callahan

  7. Department of Environmental and Ecological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

    Andrew J. Whelton

Authors
  1. Ana C. Morales
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jay M. Tomlin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Christopher P. West
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Felipe A. Rivera-Adorno
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Brianna N. Peterson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Steven A. L. Sharpe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Yoorae Noh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Seyedeh M. T. Sendesi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Brandon E. Boor
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. John A. Howarter
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  11. Ryan C. Moffet
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  12. Swarup China
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  13. Brian T. O’Callahan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  14. Patrick Z. El-Khoury
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  15. Andrew J. Whelton
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  16. Alexander Laskin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

A.C.M., J.M.T. and A.L. conceptualized the framework, experiments and analytical methodologies of the study. Y.N., S.M.T.S., B.E.B., J.A.H. and A.J.W. conducted field studies and provided samples of the CIPP waste condensates. A.C.M., C.P.W. and B.N.P. performed the HPLC–HRMS measurements and analysed the data. J.M.T. and F.A.R.-A. analysed individual particles using SEM and STXM. S.A.L.S. performed the TEM analysis of heated particles. S.C. assisted with SEM experiments and R.C.M. assisted with STXM experiments and instrument operation. B.T.O’C. and P.Z.E.-K. performed the SERS analysis. A.C.M. and A.L. integrated the experimental datasets and wrote the manuscript, and all authors contributed its review and editing. A.J.W. and A.L. secured grant support for this study and managed the project.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alexander Laskin.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

A.J.W., J.A.H., B.E.B. and S.M.T.S. are named in a patent application (PCT application no. PCT/US18/28173) filed 18 April 2018 by the Purdue Research Foundation. The patent application pertains to the technologies for capturing CIPP waste condensates investigated in this study. The invention was developed with support from the US National Science Foundation (grant CBET-1624183). The remaining authors declare no competing interests.

Peer review

Peer review information

Nature Nanotechnology thanks the anonymous reviewers for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Supplementary Information

Supplementary Notes 1–13 and references.

Supplementary Video 1

A video of the discharged waste plume adjacent to the oak tree. Taken by A.J.W.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Morales, A.C., Tomlin, J.M., West, C.P. et al. Atmospheric emission of nanoplastics from sewer pipe repairs. Nat. Nanotechnol. 17, 1171–1177 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-022-01219-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-022-01219-9

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing