Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Impact of Racial Discrimination and Coping Strategies on Internalizing Symptoms in African American Youth

  • Empirical Research
  • Published:
Journal of Youth and Adolescence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The current study examined the impact of racial discrimination stress on internalizing symptoms and coping strategies in a sample of 268 African American early adolescents (mean age = 12.90; 56% female) from low-income communities. Information about discrimination stress, coping, and internalizing symptoms was obtained via adolescents’ self-report. It was predicted that discrimination stress would be positively associated with depression and anxiety, as well as culturally-specific coping. Finally, culturally-relevant coping and mainstream coping were examined as moderators of the association between discrimination stress and internalizing symptoms. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that discrimination stress was positively associated with depression and anxiety and predicted culturally-relevant coping while controlling for mainstream coping. Communalistic coping moderated the association between discrimination and anxiety, but demonstrated a vulnerability function by increasing anxiety at high levels of discrimination. The results highlight the salience of racial discrimination for African American adolescents and the importance of considering culturally-specific coping behaviors.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Angold, A., Erkanli, A., Silberg, J., Eaves, L., & Costello, E. (2002). Depression scale scores in 8–17-year-olds: Effects of age and gender. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 43, 1052–1063. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00232.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ayers, T. S., Sandler, I. N., West, S. G., & Roosa, M. W. (1996). A dispositional and situational assessment of children’s coping: Testing alternative models of coping. Journal of Personality, 64, 923–958. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1996.tb00949.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M. (1995). EQS Structural Equation Program Manual. Encino, CA, Multivariate Software Inc.

  • Bowen-Reid, T. L., & Harrell, J. P. (2002). Racist experiences and health outcomes: An examination of spirituality as a buffer. The Journal of Black Psychology, 28, 18–36. doi:10.1177/0095798402028001002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brody, G. H., Chen, Y. F., Murry, V. M., Ge, X., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X., et al. (2006). Perceived discrimination and the adjustment of African American youths: A five-year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects. Child Development, 77, 1170–1189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cauce, A. M., Hannan, K., & Sargeant, M. (1992). Life stress, social support, and locus of control during early adolescence: Interactive effects. American Journal of Community Psychology, 20, 787–798.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chambers, J. W., Kambon, K., Birdsong, B. D., Brown, J., Dixon, P., & Robbins-Brinson, L. (1998). Africentric cultural identity and the stress experience of African American college students. The Journal of Black Psychology, 24, 368–396. doi:10.1177/00957984980243007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. The American Psychologist, 54, 805–816. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.54.10.805.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, R., Coleman, A. P., & Novak, J. D. (2004). Brief report: Initial psychometric properties of the everyday discrimination scale in black adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 363–368. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.09.004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Comer, J. P. (1995). Racism and African American adolescent development. In C. V. Willie, P. P. Rieker, B. M. Kramer, & B. S. Brown (Eds.), Mental health, racism, and sexism (pp. 151–170). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Compas, B. E., Connor, J. K., Saltzman, H., Thomsen, A. H., & Wadsworth, M. E. (2001). Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence: Problems, progress, and potential in theory and research. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 87–127. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.127.1.87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Constantine, M., Donnelly, P. C., & James-Myers, L. (2002). Collective self-esteem and Africultural coping styles in African American adolescents. Journal of Black Studies, 32, 698–710. doi:10.1177/00234702032006004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (Eds.). (1986). Prejudice, discrimination, and racism. San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erickson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton and Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farley, J. E. (2005). Majority–minority relations (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, C. B., Wallace, S. A., & Fenton, R. E. (2000). Discrimination distress during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 679–695. doi:10.1023/A:1026455906512.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • García-Coll, C., Lamberty, G., Jenkins, R., McAdoo, H., Crnic, K., Wasik, B., et al. (1996). An integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children. Child Development, 67, 1891–1914. doi:10.2307/1131600.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ge, X., Lorenz, F. O., Conger, R. D., Elder, G. H., Jr, & Simons, R. L. (1994). Trajectories of stressful life events and depressive symptoms during adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 31, 406–419. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.31.3.406.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbons, F. X., Gerrard, M., Cleveland, M. J., Wills, T. A., & Brody, G. (2004). Perceived discrimination and substance use in African American parents and their children: A panel study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 517–529. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.4.517.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grant, K. E., Compas, B. E., Thurm, A. E., McMahon, S. D., & Gipson, P. (2004). Stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology: Measurement issues and prospective effects. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 412–425. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3302_23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harrell, S. P. (2000). A multidimensional conceptualization of racism-related stress: Implications for the well-being of people of color. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 42–57. doi:10.1037/h0087722.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herman, M. A., & McHale, S. M. (1993). Coping with parental negativity: Links with parental warmth and child adjustment. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 14, 121–136. doi:10.1016/0193-3973(93)90027-S.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holmbeck, G. N. (1997). Toward terminological, conceptual, and statistical clarity in the study of mediators and moderators: Examples from the child-clinical and pediatric psychology literatures. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 599–610. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.65.4.599.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holmbeck, G. N. (2002). Post-hoc probing of significant moderational and mediational effects in studies of pediatric populations. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 27, 87–96. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/27.1.87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E. (1990). Childhood depression. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 31, 121–160. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1990.tb02276.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 593–602. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.593.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kovacs, M. (1992). Children Depression Inventory Manual. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems, Inc.

  • Krieger, N., & Sydney, S. (1996). Racial discrimination and blood pressure: The CARDIA Study of young Black and White adults. American Journal of Public Health, 86, 1370–1378.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lalonde, R. N., Majumder, S., & Parris, R. D. (1995). Preferred responses to situations of housing and employment discrimination. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 25, 1105–1119. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1995.tb00620.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landis, D., Gaylord-Harden, N. K., Malinowski, S. L., Grant, K. E., Carleton, R. A., & Ford, R. E. (2007). Urban adolescent stress and hopelessness. Journal of Adolescence, 30, 1051–1070. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2007.02.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Landrine, H., & Klonoff, E. A. (1996). The schedule of racist events: A measure of racial discrimination and a study of its negative physical and mental health consequences. The Journal of Black Psychology, 22, 144–168. doi:10.1177/00957984960222002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis-Coles, M. E. L., & Constanine, M. G. (2006). Racism-related stress, Africultural coping, and religious problem-solving among African Americans. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 12, 433–443. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.12.3.433.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pager, D., & Shepherd, H. (2008). The sociology of discrimination: Racial discrimination in employment, housing, credit, and consumer markets. Annual Review of Sociology, 34, 181–209. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.33.040406.131740.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phinney, J. S., Cantu, C. L., & Kurtz, D. A. (1997). Ethnic and American identity as predictors of self-esteem among African American, Latino, and White adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26, 165–185. doi:10.1023/A:1024500514834.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plummer, D. L., & Slane, S. (1996). Patterns of coping in racially stressful situations. The Journal of Black Psychology, 22, 302–315. doi:10.1177/00957984960223002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prelow, H. M., Danoff-Burg, S., Swenson, R. R., & Pulgiano, D. (2004). The impact of ecological risk and perceived discrimination on the psychological adjustment of African American and European American youth. Journal of Community Psychology, 32, 375–389. doi:10.1002/jcop.20007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Program for Prevention Research. (1999). Manual for the children’s coping strategies checklist and the how i coped under pressure scale. (Available from Arizona State University, P. O. Box 876005, Tempe, AZ 85287–6005).

  • Reynolds, C. R., & Richmond, B. O. (1997). What I think and feel: A revised measure of children’s manifest anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25, 15–20. doi:10.1023/A:1025751206600.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Romero, A. J., & Roberts, R. E. (1998). Perception of discrimination and ethnocultural variables in a diverse group of adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 21, 641–656. doi:10.1006/jado.1998.0185.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, A. J. (2002). Co-rumination in the friendships of girls and boys. Child Development, 73, 1830–1843. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00509.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rumbaut, R. G. (1994). The crucible within: Ethnic identity, self-esteem, and segmented assimilation among children of immigrants. The International Migration Review, 28, 748–794. doi:10.2307/2547157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, L. D. (2003). Cultural orientation and coping with perceived discrimination among African American youth. The Journal of Black Psychology, 29, 235–256. doi:10.1177/0095798403254213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seaton, E. K. (2006). Examination of a measure of racial discrimination among African American adolescents. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36, 1414–1429. doi:10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00066.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sellers, R. M., Copeland-Linder, N., Martin, P. P., & Lewis, R. L. (2006). Racial identity matters: The relationship between racial discrimination and psychological functioning in African American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 187–216. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2006.00128.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sellers, R. M., & Shelton, N. J. (2003). The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1079–1092. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.5.1079.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simons, R. L., Murry, V., McLoyd, V., Lin, K., Cutrona, C., & Conger, R. D. (2002). Discrimination, crime, ethnic identity, and parenting as correlates of depressive symptoms among African American children: A multilevel analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 371–393. doi:10.1017/S0954579402002109.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer, M. B., Dupree, D., & Hartmann, T. (1997). A phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST): A self-organization perspective in context. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 817–833. doi:10.1017/S0954579497001454.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7–24). Chicago: Nelson-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson Sanders, V. L. (2002). Racism: Perceptions of distress among African Americans. Community Mental Health Journal, 38, 111–118. doi:10.1023/A:1014539003562.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson Sanders, V. L. (2006). Coping responses and the experience of discrimination. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36, 1198–1214. doi:10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00038.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tolan, P. H., Guerra, N. G., & Montaini-Klovdahl, L. R. (1997). Staying out of harm’s way: Coping and the development of inner-city children. In S. A. Wholchik & I. N. Sandler (Eds.), Handbook of children’s coping: Linking theory and intervention (pp. 453–479). New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Utsey, S. O., Adams, E. P., & Bolden, M. (2000a). Development and initial validation of the Africultural coping systems inventory. The Journal of Black Psychology, 26, 194–215. doi:10.1177/0095798400026002005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Utsey, S. O., Brown, C., & Bolden, M. A. (2004). Testing the structural invariance of the Africultural coping systems inventory across three samples of African descent populations. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 64, 185–195. doi:10.1177/0013164403258461.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Utsey, S. O., Ponterotto, J. G., Reynolds, A. L., & Cancelli, A. A. (2000b). Racial discrimination, coping, life satisfaction, and self-esteem among African Americans. Journal of Counseling and Development, 78, 72–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wight, R. G., Botticello, A. L., & Aneshensel, C. S. (2006). Socioeconomic context, social support, and adolescent mental health: a multilevel investigation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35, 115–126. doi:10.1007/s10964-005-9009-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. R., Neighbors, H. W., & Jackson, J. S. (2003). Racial/ethnic discrimination and health: Findings from community studies. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 200–208.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, C. A., Eccles, J. S., & Sameroff, A. (2003). The influence of ethnic discrimination and ethnic identification on African American adolescents’ school and socioemotional adjustment. Journal of Personality, 71, 1197–1232. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.7106012.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Loyola University Chicago, 6525N. Sheridan Rd, Chicago, IL, 60626, USA

    Noni K. Gaylord-Harden & Jamila A. Cunningham

Authors
  1. Noni K. Gaylord-Harden
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jamila A. Cunningham
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Noni K. Gaylord-Harden.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Gaylord-Harden, N.K., Cunningham, J.A. The Impact of Racial Discrimination and Coping Strategies on Internalizing Symptoms in African American Youth. J Youth Adolescence 38, 532–543 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9377-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9377-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation