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ACCESSION NO: 1027470 SUBFILE: CRIS
PROJ NO: ORE01013 AGENCY: NIFA ORE
PROJ TYPE: OTHER GRANTS PROJ STATUS: NEW
CONTRACT/GRANT/AGREEMENT NO: 2021-51181-35862 PROPOSAL NO: 2021-07787
START: 01 SEP 2021 TERM: 31 AUG 2025 FY: 2021
GRANT AMT: $7,650,818 GRANT YR: 2021
AWARD TOTAL: $7,650,818
INITIAL AWARD YEAR: 2021

INVESTIGATOR: Tomasino, E.

PERFORMING INSTITUTION:
OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY
CORVALLIS, OREGON 97331

ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF RISK ASSOCIATED WITH WILDFIRE SMOKE EXPOSURE OF GRAPES IN THE VINEYARD

NON-TECHNICAL SUMMARY: The proposed project is designed to provide solutions to the grape and wine industries, so they can better prepare for and respond to future smoke exposure events, creating innovative solutions to maintain and even improve sustainability across the major and supporting industries. The long-term goals of this project all produce research tools linking environmental, chemical and sensory data for use by the grape and wine industries as predictors of risk to grape and wine quality. New and low-cost technologies will determine real time risk from smoke events in the vineyard. Should a smoke event be forecasted, a grape coating can be applied to the fruit to limit or halt uptake of smoke by the grapes. We will further determine the long-term potential damage to grapevines due to smoke exposure. The complexities of correlating grape smoke composition to wine smoke composition will be alleviated by an established, representative small-scale fermentation that can predict the smoke taint risk in resulting wines prior to harvest. This information will be related to the end point sensory thresholds in wine as economic control levels for wine and grape quality. All objectives in this proposed project were identified through a USDA-NIFA-SCRI Planning Grant funded engagement of all sectors of the industry. All objectives support the plant production and product efficiency and technology SCRI focus areas.

OBJECTIVES: These long-term goals include:Develop new technologies and establish low-cost sensors and sensor networks for real time risk assessment in the vineyard.Assessment of the physiological impact of smoke exposure to grapes and grapevines.Development of grape coatings to reduce or eliminate uptake of smoke components into grapes.Optimization of a representative, rapid small batch fermentation assay to predict outcomes of commercial-scale fermentations.Determination of sensory quality thresholds of smoke compounds in wineLinkage of environmental, chemical and sensory data to create predictive modeling of risk to grape and wine quality.An integrated outreach component to accurately communicate the research findings and their use, and enable industry to benefit from them.

APPROACH: Vineyard sites across Northern California (Napa and Sonoma counties), Oregon (Columbia Gorge, Willamette, Umpqua, and Rogue Valleys), and Washington (Columbia Valley, Walla Walla, Lake Chelan, Ancient Lakes, Rattlesnake Hills, Red Mountain, Columbia Gorge, Wahluke Slope, Horse Heaven Hills, Royal Slope, Yakima Valley) with varying degrees of fire risk and history will be instrumented with new low-cost sensors (Particulate matter (PM), CO2, CO, O3, NO3, SO2 and VOC). Sensors will also be deployed in simulated wildfire smoke exposure experiments to compare performance of the low-cost sensors with existing industry standard sensor systems and paired with sorbent tubes to collect smoke samples for analysis. Details regarding on-farm grapevine data collection methods are described in Subobjective 2.1. Finally, data downloaded from the Sentinel-2 Multispectral Instrument and TEMPO will provide hourly high-resolution air pollutant measurements.GC-CF-IMS instruments will be built and deployed in vineyards in California, Oregon, and Washington. CF-IMS was invented by PI-Wexler and provides 8 times the resolution of traditional IMS, which means that it can separate VOC based on their size 8 times better than conventional IMS. Since wildfire smoke contains thousands of VOCs and only some of them affect vine and grape health, this separation is key to determining which VOCs lead to wine taint.This study will use standard air quality NOx, CO, and O3 monitors (Teledyne API) and measure PM2.5 using a DustTrak monitor (TSI) and a nephelometer (Radiance Research). Measurements of VOCs will be made in-situ with a proton transfer mass spectrometer (PTR-MS) and through grab sample collection into SUUMA canisters and sorbent tubes (Tenax) for analysis GC-MS/FID. Grab sample analysis will be performed using an Agilent 5993 GC-MS system with an Entech 7200 preconcentrator. Air samples will also be collected periodically on sorbent tubes for thermal desorption analysis by GC-MS to measure phenols, methoxyphenols, aromatic hydrocarbons and larger alkanes.Smoke dispersion plumes will be calculated using data from published research and the NOAA HYSPLIT atmospheric transport and dispersion modeling system. HYSPLIT will also be used to forecast air parcel back trajectories. Wildfire emissions and emissions from surrounding vegetation will be represented from the Model for Emissions of Gases and Aerosols in Nature (MEGAN). Emissions from transportation corridors, urban cities, industrial activities, etc. will be represented by inventories provided by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). The aging of volatile and semi-volatile compounds will use CTMs to predict smoke compound aging rates. CTMs will also be used to determine the ground-level concentrations of fresh and aged smoke compounds for all wildfire events, with spatial resolution ranging from 1-24 km so that individual vineyards can understand their risk. This will allow the identification and classification of the conditions that led to smoke effects in affected vineyards. The AIRPACT regional air-quality forecasting system (Laboratory for Atmospheric Research, WSU) will be used to simulate results that link sources of wildfire smoke to affected vineyards.Create a decision tree within an Excel spreadsheet; use representative financial data from existing vineyard enterprise budgets to test run functionality; build in choice criteria and managerial courses of action developed during project. Spreadsheet-based decision support tools are common in production agriculture, though none currently exists for managing responses to smoke events in vineyards.On-farm collection of physiological, hyperspectral, and biochemical data will be taken at regular grapevine developmental stages (as well as before and after smoke events) at all Northern California sites included in previously described sensor network. Data will be collected for the three most economically relevant cultivars in California (Chardonnay, Pinot noir, and Cabernet sauvignon). Single-leaf and whole-canopy hyperspectral measurements will be made using a field spectrometer with a leaf clip and reflectance probe. Spectral measurements will be made between 400-2500 nm at a 2.5 nm resolution. Leaf gas-exchange and fluorescence will be measured using a portable photosynthesis system. Leaf and berry tissue will also be collected for subsequent analysis of volatile compounds associated with berry quality and smoke exposure.Custom chambers will be built to completely enclose and smoke six whole vines. Smoking treatment levels will be arranged in a line-source design with smoke distributed through a manifold. Smoking events (~12 hrs.) will occur after onset of ripening, prior to harvest, or at both times. Each chamber will include particle monitors to determine smoke concentration and link vine responses to sensor data. Immediately following smoke events, leaf gas exchange will be measured. At commercial maturity, fruit will be harvested, and yield components determined in the field. Fifty berries will be sampled to determine fruit composition using standard methods, and smoke volatile phenol concentration will be determined. Vine pruning weights will be determined during dormancy.Triplicate smoke exposure trials and a control will be conducted in modular hoop-houses that cover 30 vines. Exposures will be 36 or 48 hours in duration. Fuel source trials will evaluate, e.g., range land plants, conifer bark & needles. Each hoop-house will have sensory and particle monitors. Active air samplers will collect smoke samples for later analysis. Leaf and berry samples will be collected prior to exposures in each trial, and at regular intervals throughout each exposure. Exposed fruit will be harvested at commercial maturity for winemaking trials. In year 3, the hoop house system will be modified to include a reaction chamber for the artificial "aging" of smoke, based in part on outcomes from Objective 1 during the first two years of the project.In the lab, cyclodextrin-functionalized chitosan and cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) will form inclusion complexes with smoke compounds, trapping them. In the field, we will evaluate the efficacy of the most effective coatings in trapping smoke volatile compounds in the experimental field smoke trials. Two cluster-directed sprays of functional coatings will be applied at key berry development stages as a function of treatment for each of these field experiments. Berry samples will be collected and analyzed for basic fruit composition and for smoke volatile phenols as described.Grape and leaf extracts and wines will be analyzed for their content of smoke related volatile phenols using established GCMS methods. Similarly, glycosides and other precursor forms of smoke marker compounds will be analyzed using LCMS and methods previously developed or similar methods adopted to provide consistency in results across labs participating in the project.During smoke events, grapes and the subsequent wines produced using standard experimental winemaking protocols, will be analyzed for chemical markers as well as other major matrix components. Wines will be made at a research scale (100 L), mimicking commercial winemaking, and small scale (0.375 to 15 L). The small-scale fermentation has the possibility of having smoke risk results much faster than large scale fermentations. The comparability of these smaller, faster fermentations to traditional winemaking must be demonstrated in regard to smoke markers.Wines will be created from smoke tainted grapes containing increasing amounts of smoke compounds. Alternative force choice (3-AFC) tests evaluating the smokey/ashy flavor will determine perception thresholds. Paired preference tests will determine rejection thresholds. For the chosen varietals, we will conduct sensory tests on three different types of each varietal wine.

PROGRESS: 2022/09 TO 2023/08
Target Audience: Grape industry Wine industry Farm workers Workers supporting grape and wine industries Private and regulatory professionals monitoring environmental, ecological and agricultural toxicity Washington Congressional Delegation California Congressional Delegation Oregon Congressional Delegation General public Educating media professionals Changes/Problems:Ongoing supply issues for the sensor network have been a great concern. Just over half the sensors purchased still function; fewer report to the remote dashboard. We have partnered with OSU's OpenS lab to build the remaining sensors; they will be in vineyards by May 2024. The company providing the original sensors is unreliable and now closed since 2/2023, without notification. WSU's Von Walden is compiling 6 movable sensors to characterize smoke events in un-sensored areas. Due to a heatwave, fruit were harvested at two CA sites without our knowledge and not available for sampling or winemaking. A strike by graduate students in California caused a one-month delay in sample analysis. We struggled with obtaining reasonable signals from the ion charge-coupled device and are investigating the root cause of this issue and exploring solutions. Many PI's in the project have had staffing difficulties. While we did accomplish the majority of the field work in 2021, we were unable to achieve the full plan of field measurements (minus the sensor issues) until 2022 because of staffing shortfalls. Several issues with smoke tainted Pinot noir make traditional sensory threshold methods problematic. The method we now use differs from the proposal approach. We are using a staircase method that reduces the number of samples and any carry over from smoke taint. At OSU many 2021 vintage wine samples still being analyzed due to a delay in analytical equipment installation. The equipment, purchased with other funds, is used for smoke analysis. Samples are prepped; lab renovations delay analysis. November 2023 is the latest projected renovation completion date. Elizabeth Tomasino assume the lead for objective 1 from Tom Collins. Health issues and differences in communication and organization styles have indicated the wisdom of this change. What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?Collins, T.S. 2023: Smoke Exposure Research Update. West Coast Smoke Exposure Task Force Annual Smoke Summit, 6 June 2023. Meeting with Senator Murray's legislative staff, 08/16/2023, to discuss smoke exposure research Presentation at Gala Dinner and Article in Wine Enthusiast magazine for Innovator of the Year award for Tomasino, Collins and Oberholster Field trip for Chiawana High School Environmental Sciences classes to tour ongoing smoke exposure trial at WSU Roza vineyard, 27 September 2022 Interview/demonstration with reporter for KING 5 TV news (Seattle) during ongoing smoke exposure trial at WSU Roza vineyard, 27 September 2022. J.A. Fryer and E. Tomasino (2023) A mixture of thiophenols and volatile phenols lead to smoke flavor perception in wildfire-affected wine. OWRI Grape Day, April 4, Corvallis, OR D.C. Cerrato, L. Garcia, E. Eberz, M. Penner and E. Tomasino (2023) Application of smoke containing 13C isotopes to wine grapes for chemical characterization of smoke influences in wine. OWRI Grape Day, April 4, Corvallis, OR L. Garcia, T. Tran, J. Jung, J.B. Shields, D.C. Cerrato, M.H. Penner, A.D. Levin, Y. Zhao and E. Tomasino (2023) Film coatings as a protective layer in reducing grape absorption of smoke phenols. OWRI Grape Day, April 4, Corvallis, OR E. Tomasino (2023) Grape Smoke exposure update - enology, SOREC Grape Day, March 14, Central Point, OR E.Tomasino, E. Herve, N. Schultze and S. Cabot (2023) Smoke Affected Wines. Oregon Wine Symposium, February 14-15, Portland, OR E. Tomasino (2022) Grape Smoke Exposure and Smoke Taint in Wine. ARF Annual Board Meeting, November 11, Corvallis, OR Kar, S. and Levin, A.D. Viticultural Practices to Mitigate Negative Impacts of Grape Smoke Exposure: Current Knowledge and Updates. March 14, 2023. Southern Oregon Grape Day. Central Point, OR. Kar, S., Clark, R., DeShields, J.B., Ivey, I., and Levin, A.D. Wildfire Smoke Exposure to Grapevines - Current Understanding and Future Directions. April 3, 2023. OWRI Grape Day. Corvallis, OR. Kar, S. and Levin, A.D. Wildfires - A Burning Issue for Winegrowers. May 2023. OWRI Vine to Wine Newsletter. A. Oberholster. 8/23. Grape smoke exposure. California Association of Winegrape Growers and Lodi District Grape Growers Meeting, Lodi, CA. A. Oberholster. 1/23. The question of airborne taints. Unified Grape & Wine Symposium: T'aint Just Smoke Taint. SAFE Credit Union Convention Center, Sacramento, CA. N. R. Kampen and A. Oberholster. 1/23. Grape smoke exposure. University of California Cooperative Extension Smoke taint seminar, Ukiah, CA. A. Oberholster. 11/22. Grape smoke exposure: mitigation in the vineyard. IPM meeting, A. Oberholster. 11/22. Grape Smoke Exposure: Latest research. Rootstock meeting,. A. Oberholster 7/23. Grape smoke exposure impact. California Air Pollution Control Officers Association meeting, A. Oberholster 11/22. Grape smoke exposure. Monte Xanic, 43rd OIV Congress, Mexico. N. R. Kampen, C. Medina Plaza, Y. Wen, C. Alaimo, G. Garcia-Zamora, I. Arías Perez, A. Oberholster (2023). Impact of Barrier Spray Application Method on Smoke Mitigation in Wine Grapes. 74th American Society of Viticulture and Enology Conference, Napa, CA. Postdoc has developed project management skills; worked with 1 faculty research assistants and undergraduate to build, test, and calibrate smoking chambers. One faculty research assistant manages the sensor network and associated sampling and has also gained project management experience. All have gained experience in experimental design and execution. WSU grad student Ana Carla Fernandez-Valdes (Dept Civil & Environmental Engineering) is developing the air quality modeling framework to evaluate chemical mechanisms to simulate smoke-taint conditions in vineyards, investigating photochemical aging of wildfire smoke along back trajectories, and evaluating dry deposition of wildfire chemicals and aerosols. She passed her Ph.D. proposal examination in April 2023. Postdoctoral fellow Dr. Amin Vahidi has summarized data obtained from various sources (including sorbent tubes) to validate the air quality modeling framework, and assisting in Ana Carla's supervision. A post-doc, 2 PhD students, 1 MS student, 2 undergrad interns are currently working on this project. Some are supported on this grant; others through a NACA agreement and industry gifts. UCD graduate student working on related research has benefitted greatly from the exposure field methods developed for this project. Comprehensive training of UCD MS student Hao-Lin Fang and post-doctoral fellow Dr. Haoran Yu on the development of the high-resolution cross flow ion mobility spectrometer including 3D printing, CAD, operation of the unit. At OSU, the Tomasino program had 2 doctoral students, 5 undergraduate students and 1 postdoctoral scholar were working on this project. In the Zhao program, 1 MS student and 1 undergraduate were working on this project. Training includes field work, sample preparation, chemical analysis, wine making and more. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?A good pairing: Northwest scientists helping wineries defeat wildfire smoke Jefferson Public Radio (ijpr.org) Wine Enthusiast Magazine Innovator's award to Tomasino, Oberholster and Collins. Find link for accompanying article. Collins, T.S. 2023: Changing Conditions--Impacts of Freeze Damage and Wildfire Smoke Exposures. 74th National Conference of the American Society for Enology and Viticulture, Climate Change Symposium part 2. Napa, CA, USA, June 26th, 2023 Collins, T.S. 2022: Risk Assessment and Mitigation of Smoke Exposure Effects on Grape and Wine Quality. Annual meeting of the Japan Chapter of the American Society for Enology and Viticulture. Kofu, Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan, November 26th, 2022. Smoke Exposure Proposal Discussion with FPAC-RMA, Davis, CA, Teams meeting 30 November 2022 J. Fryer and E. Tomasino (2023) Recognition threshold concentrations of Thiophenol:Phenol mixtures for "ashy" off-flavor in smoke affected wine. ASEV National Meeting, June 28 - 30, Napa, CA L. Garcia, T. Tran, J. Jung, J. DeShields, D.C. Cerrato, M. Penner, A.D. Levin, Y. Zhao and E. Tomasino (2023) Film coatings as a protective layer in reducing grape absorption of smoke phenols. ASEV National Meeting, June 28 - 30, Napa, CA J. Fryer and E. Tomasino (2022) Impact of volatile compounds contained within smoke on retronasal aroma of wildfire affected wine. Society of Sensory Professionals national conference, Savannah, GA, November 2-4 J. Fryer and E. Tomasino (2023) Recognition threshold concentrations of thiophenol:phenol mixtures for "ashy" off-flavor in smoke affected wines. 15th Pangborn Sensory Science Symposium. August 20-24, Nantes, France D.C. Cerrato, J. Fryer, M. Aragon, T Collins and E. Tomasino (2023) Novel benzenethiols in conjunction with phenols cause smoke perception in Syrah, Grenache, and Pinot noir, OenoMacrowine, July 10-13, Bordeaux, France L. Garcia, T. Tran, J. Jung, J.B. DeShields, D.C. Cerrato, M.H. Penner, A.D. Levin, Y. Zhao and E.Tomasino (2023) Investigation of film coatings as a protective layer in reducing the absorption of smoke phenols into Pinot noir grapes. OenoMacrowine, July 10-13, Bordeaux, France OenoMacrowine, July 10-13, Bordeaux, France. L. Garcia, T. Tran, D.C. Cerrato, M. Penner, Y. Zhao and E. Tomasino (2022) Evaluation of coatings on grape ripening and as mitigation technique in reducing smoke phenol absorption in grapes. 43rd World Congress of Vine and Wine. October30 - November 4, Ensenada, Baja, California J.A. Fryer and E. Tomasino (2022) Flavor attributes associated with wildfire smoke-exposure in wines and determination of proper rinsing protocol to clear the mouth of smoke-related flavors for sensory analysis. 43rd World Congress of Vine and Wine. October30 - November 4, Ensenada, Baja, California https://www.capradio.org/articles/2023/08/17/california-researchers-race-to-fin d-solutions-to-wildfire-smoke-tainted-wine/ NorCal Public Media story, Bay Area Bountiful: Anita Oberholster, PhD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uplz7H7J7kM Presentations to Venture Catalyst and Triple Ring Technologies (Newark, CA) highlighted applicability of our invention across agricultural industries. Discussed wildfire emissions and modeling with Prof. Lu Hu group (U of MT) as it relates to this project. They are known for VOC characterization of western wildfires, and their work with airborne measurements provides the basic VOC emission factors and composition used in our work. We have an informal collaboration with his group on smoke characterization and photochemical modeling approaches. Oregon State develops new method to measure wildfire smoke in wine (kptv.com) April 27, 2023, guest on the Jefferson Exchange, https://www.ijpr.org/show/the-jefferson-exchange/2023-04-26/thu-9-am-osu-resear chers-help-find-the-mechanism-behind-wildfire-smoke-taint-on-wine-grapes April 26, 2023 Researchers pinpoint compounds that cause smoke taint in wine, What causes 'smoke taint' in wine Oregon bluemountaineagle.com April 23, 2023, 11:09am, Live interview on grape smoke exposure Fox Weather live April 20, 2023, Researchers make key discovery in identifying smoke taint in wine, Researchers make key discovery in identifying smoke taint in wine (thedrinksbusiness.com) April 19, 2023, OSU research finds new compounds causing 'smoke taint' in wine. OSU research finds new compounds causing 'smoke taint' in wine - OPB April 19, 2023, OSU research smoke out wine 'taint' compound, OSU research smokes out wine 'taint' compound (klcc.org) April 18, 2023, Discovery could prevent grapes tainted by wildfire smoke from ruining wine, Discovery could prevent grapes tainted by wildfire smoke from ruining wine (yahoo.com) April 18, 2023, Compounds behind Ashy Flavor of Smoke Taint in Wine Identified. Compounds Behind Ashy Flavor of Smoke Taint in Wine Identified Technology Networks April 18, 2023, How does wildfire smoke impact wine flavors? How does wildfire smoke impact wine flavors? • Earth.com April 17, 2023, Oregon State researchers experiment to understand the chemistry of wildfire smoke in wine, Oregon State researchers experiment to understand the chemistry of wildfire smoke in wine KPIC April 17, 2023, OSU Identifies wildfire smoke compound in wine grapes, OSU Identifies Wildfire Smoke Compound In Wine Grapes ALT 102.3 (iheart.com) May 3, 2022, Understanding the Complex Relationship of Smoke, Grape and Wine: an Update. Wine Business Monthly What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?Conduct three smoke exposure trials this season to support the barrier spray trial. Determine smoke density and composition during these exposures for multiple fuel sources with sorbent tubes. Analyze the composition of the fruit and wines post-exposure. Continue sensor network development. Continue to development analytical methods for smoke-related markers. Fruit and air sampling will continue through 2023 harvest. Pilot experiments will test smoking chambers. Carry out full-scale vineyard dose-response trials. Additional comparisons of small-scale with larger scale fermentations. Continue dataset assembly for air chemistry in vineyards (and smoke houses) to validate models. Apply analysis of chemical transport framework to smoke-taint conditions and draft manuscript. Complete analysis of air chemical aging delivered to vineyards; draft and submit manuscript. Begin analysis of dry deposition effect within vineyards. Examine composition differences between ambient air, wildfire smoke and smoke tent samples to determine compounds likely causing wine smoke taint. Differences in VOC emission factors between feedstocks complicate this work. This year's solid data for analysis will to help answer these questions. Observed wildfire smoke volatiles will validate predictions from the AIRPACT model. We are preparing a wider range deployment of the mobile van to collect in-situ monitoring plus grab sampling of VOCs)from wildfires next year, and will hire a post doc with experience in the instrumentation to be used. We will implement the air quality methods summarized in Obj. 1.4 to create a database of wildfire smoke exposure in California and Oregon. Complete development of the CF-IMS, integrate GC into it and a preconcentrator up front. Investigate portable GC-MS instruments for use instead of or in parallel with the GC-CF-IMS instrument. Determine thresholds of smoke compounds in 3 types of Cabernet Sauvignon wine and 1 of the chardonnay wines. Complete analysis of smoke compounds from samples from natural smoke exposure events and research trials. Hold face-to-face stakeholder meeting for feedback on the project to date. Complete the sensor network with new OSU partner. Many OR and WA smoke events (2023 harvest) have provided opportunities for the smoke modeling work, including fresh and old smoke and varying exposure times. Data across the 3 research objectives will determine the air, grape and wine measurements that result in no change, impacted grapes and tainted grapes.

IMPACT: 2022/09 TO 2023/08
What was accomplished under these goals? Obj. 1.1 Sixty-six percent of the proposed sensor network functioned by October 2022. Proposed sensor arrays were to have been 15 (OR), 21 (CA) and 21 (WA). Array performance issues have been ongoing. Southern Oregon Air quality sensor network maintained in 2 sites on 150-mile transect from CA border to north of Roseburg OR. Backup Purple air sensors purchased for 5 locations. Fruit and air samples collected from ripening through harvest at each site and submitted for chemical analyses. Sampled ambient air from 4 wineries into canisters during a widespread smoke event in E WA (8/23), to compare actual to predicted (AIRPACT model) smoke composition and examine changes in the VOC profile due to plume aging. Sampled wood pellet smoke in tent experiments and wildfire smoke, to correlate smoke VOC composition and smoke age on fresh and aged wildfire smoke samples with a wide array of PM2.5 concentrations. Identified major samples components and prepared secondary standards for compound identification and response factor determination. Deployed 13 sensor arrays in Sonoma and Napa Cos. as baseline air samples; harvested fruit for grape composition analysis and small-scale fermentations. Leveraged low-cost, existing climate and irrigation sensors and stations to identify and detect organic biomarkers of smoke-taint in the atmosphere. Obj. 1.2. Analyzed 244 field samples in 11 sampling events. Cross-Flow Ion Mobility Spectrometry allows real-time assessment of grape and smoke composition. Obj. 1.4 Collected smoke samples during exposure trials with continuous monitoring for CO and CO2 in one tent; VOC samples were periodically collected in specially coated SUUMA canisters and analyzed. Measured PM2.5 with samplers positioned in different tent locations, and in the smoke source duct for input concentrations.Collected canister air samples from 2 other smoke tents and 3 control tents. Collected smoke samples at four sites during smoke exposure events in E Washington, measured smoke density and collected grape samplesfor analysis of fruit composition. Conducted nano-fermentations. Calculated 7-day back trajectories from Wenatchee, Washington for two major fires in 2018 and 2020, one of which produced smoke taint. These outputs described how air chemistry changed along these trajectories. The most significant changes in aging of air chemistry occur within 1-2 days prior to arrival at the vineyard. Collected samples in Southern Oregon, Willamette Valley and Walla Walla valley (Oregon side), July 12 - Aug 30. Fires in Northern California, Oregon and Washington smoked vineyards through the region. Oregon samples (100) were collected during this period. Chose a modeling framework to explore smoke-taint associated with wildfire events. This framework will incorporate three chemical mechanisms and is run at three different spatial domains; the 0.8 km domain will serve individual wineries. Developed methods to estimate smoke exposure using regional chemical transport model CTM, a reactive 3-D chemical transport model (CTM) predicting the evolution of gas and particle phase air pollutants. A random forest regression machine learning approach developed an algorithmic framework to improve accuracy of predicted smoke exposure fields. Guaiacol, 4-methylguaiacol, syringol and 4-methylsyringol are phenolic compounds of interest. Four new model species and their reactions were added to a gas-phase mechanism to accurately predict concentrations of these compounds in model simulations. Speciation profile for wood combustion emissions updated with most recent California Air Resource Board and published literature data. This new speciation profile considers 72 identified chemicals emitted from wood combustion. These chemicals were matched with the updated gas-phase mechanism to generate a new SAPRC gas profile, allowing a more accurate description of phenolic emission patterns. We apply the Random Forest Regression (RFR) technique to reduce the bias in the PM2.5 concentration predicted by the UCD/CIT model, using four support elements: surface monitoring data from US EPA and Purple Air, Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer optical depth (AOD) retrievals, meteorology data from WRF, and CTM results from the UCD/CIT model. Fraction bias values between UCD/CIT PM2.5 variables and EPA daily average observations were calculated as training targets in the RFR approach. The performance of the original UCD/CIT model simulations and the RFR corrected predictions were evaluated by statistical analysis based on correlation coefficient, normalized mean error, and normalized mean bias; time series analysis of predicted and measured concentrations; and comparison of annul average concentration fields before and after RFR processing. All suggested improved accuracy of the exposure fields in test year in California. Obj. 1.5 Developed draft decision tree to identify others' critical data needs. Obj. 2.1 Grapevine water status and leaf gas exchange collected at 3 of 8 sensor sites under differing irrigation rates to evaluate interaction effects of smoke exposure and water deficit. Obj. 2.2 Established a trial to evaluate how far in advance of smoke exposure a barrier spray protects fruit. Custom whole-vine smoking chambers developed, built, and calibrated to deliver variable rates of smoke and conduct dose-response experiments, which are underway. Obj. 2.3 Collected grape samples in all 3 states, from veraison and every 2 weeks, to determine the evolution of smoke compounds. Research smoke trials were held in 2022 at different points of grape development, using various fuel sources including hickory pellets, barley and forest floor duff (Ponderosa pine and Douglas Fir forests). Washington used pelletized sagebrush for 2023 smoke trials. Continue to improve extraction techniques for grape berry samples. Using various derivatizing agents for the analysis of thiophenols in grapes and wines. Obj. 2.4 Round 2 of food grade coatings applied during 2022 vintage and wine made. Much of 2023 has been analysis of 800 samples (2022) for smoke compounds, including thiophenols. One coating application to the SOREC vineyard, where there was a smoke event in 2022, although no elevated phenols were detected in the grapes. Woodhall Vineyard grapes were coated and exposed to extreme smoke in research trials. Preliminary results suggest that 2 of the 4 coatings tested decreased guaiacol, 4-methyl guaiacol, syringol and 4-methyl syringol; cresol levels did not alter. Applied kaolin sprays up to 4 weeks ahead of a planned smoke exposure. Conducted field trials of 6 treatments each of Kaolin and GM-3E barrier sprays. The treatments were applied 10 days before smoke exposure in the bunch zone only or the bunch zone and canopy, or applied 21 days before exposure in the same areas; included a no spray control and no spray/smoke buffer. Timings were equally effective in the absence of precipitation during the trial. Insignificantly higher efficacy observed with treatment of canopy and bunch zones. Objective 3.1 Developing GC-MS/MS approaches for analysis of thiophenols in juices and wines, including direct measurement by MS detector, and evaluating derivatizing agents for analysis of the derived thiols. We are comparing analysis methods thiols in grapes and wine. Obj. 3.2 Fermentations at scales of 0.5-0.7, 12-14, 120, and 1,000 kg were compared, showing good correlations among the scales for smoke marker compound composition. Actual values differ and smaller fermentations allow extraction of more volatile phenols due to better skin contact. Obj. 3.3 Created method to determine sensory thresholds in Pinot noir and number of participants needed to determine the threshold. Thresholds for thiophenols in Pinot noir have been determined at baseline, elevated and taint levels of smoke phenols. Publication in preparation on this method and results. Objective 4 Extension and outreach planning in place.

PUBLICATIONS (not previously reported): 2022/09 TO 2023/08
1. Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: Tran, T.T., J. Jung, L. Garcia, J.B. DeShields, D.C. Cerrato, M.H. Penner, E. Tomasino, A.D. Levin, and Y. Zhao. 2023. Impact of functional spray coatings on smoke volatile phenol compounds and Pinot noir grape growth. J Food Sci 88:367-380
2. Type: Journal Articles Status: Submitted Year Published: 2023 Citation: Tran, T.T., J. Jung, L. Garcia, J.B. DeShields, D.C. Cerrato, M.H. Penner, E. Tomasino, A.D. Levin, and Y. Zhao. Submitted. Evaluation of functional spray coatings for mitigating smoke volatile phenol compounds via blocking, absorption, and/or adsorption on Pinot noir wine grapes. J Ag Food Chem.